Research by Judy Messina with Audrey Gray, Phil Lentz and Jonathan Bowles. Additional research support from Jonah Bleckner, Melanie Breault, Matt Falber, Natalia Khosla and Saigeetha Narasimhan. Design by Amy Parker and Ahmad Dowla.

This research was made possible through Capital One’s Future Edge initiative.

General operating support for the Center for an Urban Future has been provided by the Bernard F. and Alva B. Gimbel Foundation, the Lucius N. Littauer Foundation and the M&T Charitable Foundation.

CAPITAL ONE'S FUTURE EDGE initiative is a $150 million, five-year effort to help more American workers and entrepreneurs succeed in the 21st century economy. Through Future Edge, Capital One works with hundreds of leading community and nonprofit organizations in NYC and beyond, including microfinance and micro-lending organizations empowering women entrepreneurs such as Grameen America, Accion, and the Business Outreach Center Network. Learn more at www.capitalone.com/investingforgood or join the conversation on Twitter at @YourFutureEdge.

CENTER FOR AN URBAN FUTURE (CUF) is an independent, nonprofit think tank that generates innovative policies to create jobs, reduce inequality and help lower income New Yorkers climb into the middle class. For 20 years, CUF has published accessible, data-driven reports on ways to grow and diversify the economy and expand opportunity that are anchored in rigorous research, not preconceived notions about outcome. Our work has been a powerful catalyst for policy change in New York City and serves as an invaluable resource for government officials, community groups, nonprofit practitioners and business leaders as they advocate for and implement policies to address some of New York’s biggest challenges and opportunities.